Beyond ‘Good’ and ‘Bad’ Pedagogy: Embracing Pedagogy, Andragogy, and Heutagogy as Complementary Lenses

To be frank, I find it deeply frustrating when pedagogy is reduced to a simplistic “good” or “bad” label, as if every effective teaching practice—no matter how context-specific or learner-driven—can be shoe-horned into a generic bucket called “good pedagogy,” while any ineffective practice is shrugged off as simply “bad pedagogy.” This binary view erases the rigorous distinctions between teaching novice learners (typically children), guiding adult learners, and empowering fully self-directed humans. This view ignores how principles of pedagogy, andragogy, and heutagogy each bring unique, research-backed design principles to bear, and conflating them not only flattens the professional vocabulary but also leads educators to assume that merely branding any method “pedagogy” is sufficient, even when it flies in the face of developing learner needs.

In this article, I reject this shallow dichotomy and argue instead for recognizing three complementary lenses—pedagogy for the dependent novice, andragogy for the self-directed adult, and heutagogy for the master learner.

There are very good reasons why pedagogy doesn't always work with adults and why heutagogy isn't just "good pedagogy".

Let's dig in.

1. The Evolution—and Limitations—of “Pedagogy”

It’s important to start by understanding the word–pedagogy. Derived from the Greek pais (“child”) and agogos (“leader”), it quite literally means “leading the child”. Yet, by the late 16th century, it came to signify “the science of teaching” via French pédagogie (Pedagogy, n.d.). However, it’s important to note that “science” in the 16th century had teaching focused on designing and delivering instruction through instructor-led, teacher-centered approaches. 

Over the last century, national compulsory education models has given rise to a schooling model that prioritizes content transmission—direct instruction (i.e. lectures), rigid curricula schedules, uniform pacing, and high-stakes testing—often at the expense of learners’ autonomy, engagement, and deeper understanding (Fredericks, Blumenfeld, & Paris, 2004; Kohn, 1999). This has been historically, and accurately, referred to as pedagogy.

Pedagogy is defined by teacher‐led principles—structuring learning through externally imposed objectives, sequenced content, and frequent assessments—precisely because it serves learners who have not yet mastered the strategies and metacognitive skills necessary to direct their own learning (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000).

In contrast, heutagogy emerges only when learners develop sufficient self‐regulation and reflective practices to define their own goals, choose appropriate strategies, and evaluate progress independently (Hase & Kenyon, 2007; Blaschke, 2012). Andragogy occupies a middle ground specific to adult learners who bring rich experience and internal motivation but still benefit from structured guidance that activates prior knowledge, establishes relevance, and negotiates pacing (Knowles, Holton, & Swanson, 2015).

When advocates insist that every learner‐centered practice—no matter how self‐directed—can simply be relabeled “good pedagogy,” they erase the continuum of meaningful and necessary support that each perspective provides:

• Novice Learners (Pedagogy): Require explicit scaffolding, modeling, and feedback to build foundational skills and strategies for learning.

  
  

• Self-Determined Learners (Heutagogy): Thrive in environments where they fully set their own objectives, source or create materials, and self-assess—conditions that presuppose mastery of the very skills pedagogy first cultivates.

  
  

• Adult Learners (Andragogy): Bring experience and intrinsic motivations to the table; they need diagnostic assessments, problem‐centered tasks, and opportunities for choice, yet still rely on the instructor to frame content and validate learning.

Self-determined learning did not exist as a coherent educational practice until recent decades of research in complexity theory and adult education; it cannot be shoe-horned into a pedagogical framework without abandoning Pedagogy’s core commitment to instructor-led scaffolds. By co-opting heutagogical strategies under the banner of “good pedagogy,” educators risk assuming that their existing teacher-centered philosophy is sufficient—and thereby implementing self-directed tasks with teacher-led control, dismissing the cultural, structural, and metacognitive supports learners need to exercise to improve and grow as learners.

To reclaim pedagogy’s true purpose, we must recognize it as one of three complementary frameworks, each tuned to learners’ prior knowledge, metacognitive capacity, and self-direction, rather than an all-encompassing label that flattens the rich design space of effective teaching.

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2. Andragogy: More Than “Useless Doublespeak”

The claim that andragogy is “useless doublespeak” rests on a false dichotomy—portraying the term as nothing more than a rhetorical opposite to pedagogy rather than a research‐grounded model tailored to adult (versus child) learners. In reality, Malcolm Knowles did not invent andragogy simply to coin a catchy antithesis; he observed, across dozens of adult education settings in the 1940s–1970s, that traditional teacher‐centered methods systematically failed to engage adults (Knowles, 1980).

When Pedagogy Fails Adults

It’s true that the many effective pedagogical practices—especially those informed by constructivist and learner-centered traditions—already incorporate many of the same principles championed in andragogy (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000; Darling-Hammond et al., 2020). For example, guided discovery, formative feedback loops, and connections to learners’ prior knowledge are routinely taught in teacher-education programs under the banner of “good pedagogy.” However, Taylor and Hamdy’s (2013) review of medical education demonstrates that without clear relevance and genuine choice, even highly motivated professionals report low engagement and only superficial learning, despite the high stakes of their work.

• Pedagogical Workshop: Picture adult learners enduring back-to-back lectures at a mandatory conference on project management tools, struggling to stay attentive because they can’t see how the abstract examples address their real-world challenges.

  
  

• Andragogical Workshop: Picture facilitators asking each participant to name a current project issue, then introducing tools in direct response to those needs, with learners applying techniques immediately in small teams, resulting in tangible action plans and sustained engagement (Taylor & Hamdy, 2013).

The above example may help you see the general distinction, but it goes much deeper than simply addressing the practicality of a presented topic with personalized examples.

Core Andragogical Principles vs. Pedagogical Assumptions

Knowles’s six principles directly contradict key pedagogical assumptions (Knowles, Holton, & Swanson, 2015). By exploring these principles, some curriculum leaders may develop a deeper understanding of the kinds of resistance they receive from adult learners towards certain pedagogical instructional approaches.

1. Need to Know

   • Pedagogy Assumption: Content sequencing often proceeds on curricular logic alone (“Lesson 1 → Lesson 2”) without explicitly establishing relevance, leaving many learners questioning the purpose of study, resulting in compliance and disengagement over mastery and purpose.

     1. Example: A generic course on “Effective Communication” is delivered via a fixed slide deck—definitions, models, exercises—without ever explaining how these tools address participants’ actual workplace conflicts, so attendees may complete the session mechanically to achieve an unrelated compliance goal.

   • Andragogy Principle: Adults must understand why they need to learn something before they invest effort. Instructors therefore begin by linking content to learners’ real-world goals and responsibilities.

     1. Example: A leadership workshop opens by asking managers to identify a current team-performance challenge. The facilitator then frames communication strategies around solving that specific issue, making the session immediately relevant.

     
     

2. Self-Concept

   • Pedagogy Assumption: Learners are treated as dependent recipients; the instructor dictates every step, which can stifle initiative and reinforce passivity.

     1. Example: A standard computer class assigns the same “build a static webpage” project to all adult learners, regardless of prior experience or interests, resulting in passive participation from both novice and advanced participants.

   • Andragogy Principle: Adults see themselves as self-directed and expect autonomy in choosing what, when, and how they learn. Effective design therefore offers options in pacing, topics, and learning pathways. 

     1. Example: In a coding bootcamp, learners select one of three project tracks (web, data, automation) based on their career aspirations, and set individual milestones, fostering ownership in developing fundamental learning outcomes.

        
        

3. Experience as a Resource

   • Pedagogy Assumption: Learners are presumed to start with a blank slate; prior knowledge is often overlooked or confined to brief “warm-up” exercises, missing opportunities for deeper connection.

     1. Example: A training manual begins with textbook definitions of patient care procedures, ignoring that participants have years of on-the-job insights they could apply to refine those procedures.

   • Andragogy Principle: Adults bring accumulated life and work experiences that enrich learning. Instruction integrates those experiences through case analyses, peer discussions, and problem-based activities.

     1. Example: A healthcare training session invites experienced nurses to share difficult patient scenarios, then co-develops best-practice protocols, leveraging collective wisdom.

        
        

4. Readiness to Learn

   • Pedagogy Assumption: Readiness or knowledge or skills is determined by age or grade level, not individual motivation or context, forcing all learners through the same schedule regardless of actual preparedness.

     1. Example: A weeklong “team leadership” workshop repeats the same modules each session, even if participants have vastly different levels of prior managerial experience or urgency.

   • Andragogy Principle: Adult readiness is tied to immediate life or career transitions—new roles, challenges, or responsibilities. Programs therefore diagnose current needs and tailor content accordingly.

     1. Example: A promotion-prep course begins with a needs survey asking participants which supervisory skills they lack; the curriculum is then customized to address those gaps.

        
        

5. Orientation to Learning

   • Pedagogy Assumption: Learning is organized by disciplinary silos and theoretical units, delaying relevance and reducing the opportunity for practical engagement.

     1. Example: A lecture on “marketing models” reviews historical frameworks in isolation, with application exercises postponed to the end of the course, by which time participants have lost context.

   • Andragogy Principle: Adults prefer learning framed around real-world problems and tasks, enabling immediate application of new skills. Instruction therefore centers on authentic challenges rather than abstract theory.

     1. Example: In a marketing seminar, attendees work on developing a campaign for a real product from their own organizations, applying concepts in real time.

        
        

6. Motivation

   • Pedagogy Assumption: External motivators such as grades, testing, and compliance dominate, which can undermine genuine interest and shift focus from learning to evaluation.

     1. Example: An employee workshop offers a “certificate of attendance” but no clear path for applying new skills, so participants attend only to earn the credential rather than internalize the content.

   • Andragogy Principle: Internal drivers—career advancement, personal growth, self-fulfillment—are primary motivators for adult learners. Design therefore taps those intrinsic incentives rather than relying on external rewards.

     1. Example: A professional development program asks each participant to set a personal “success measure” (e.g., securing a promotion), then ties learning activities directly to achieving that measure.

        
        

By systematically applying these six heuristics, andragogical design delivers tailored, engaging learning experiences that honor adult learners’ autonomy, experience, and purpose—contrasting sharply with pedagogical models optimized for dependent novices.

Meta-Analytic Evidence for Andragogy

Colquitt, LePine, and Noe’s (2000) meta-analysis of 85 independent workplace training studies spanning two decades revealed that interventions incorporating learner choice (e.g., self-paced modules, elective topics) and relevance (e.g., real-world problem alignment) yielded an average 25% higher skill retention and 30% greater transfer of learning on the job than those relying solely on instructor-led lectures and fixed curricula. These effect sizes held across industries—from manufacturing safety protocols to software certification—demonstrating that andragogical practices are not niche curiosities but robust drivers of adult performance. Such consistent, cross-contextual outcomes decisively refute the claim that andragogy is merely a rhetorical flourish with no real impact.

Rebutting the “Dishonest Opposite” Charge

Critics who label andragogy “doublespeak” overlook the value of specialized taxonomies for communicating design intent. Just as medicine distinguishes pediatrics from geriatrics—each with research-based protocols for different physiological needs—education benefits from separate terms signaling distinct learner profiles and evidence-backed strategies. Using “andragogy” flags that content should be diagnosed (e.g., pre-course needs assessments), designed (problem-centered tasks), and delivered (choice-driven pathways) in ways fundamentally different from K–12 pedagogy. Far from obfuscating, this precision fosters clear professional dialogue and targeted instructional improvements.

A Continuum of Learner Support

Contemporary scholarship frames pedagogy, andragogy, and heutagogy not as competing schools but as stages along a spectrum of learner autonomy (Merriam & Bierema, 2014). For example, a blended professional development program might begin with pedagogical scaffolds—instructor-modeled case studies—to introduce new concepts, transition into andragogical workshops where participants choose project topics and integrate personal experience, and culminate in heutagogical capstones requiring self-directed research and peer-review. By calibrating the degree of support to learners’ evolving readiness—novice through proficient to self-determined—educators can create seamless pathways that honor both the science of teaching and the art of learning.

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3. Heutagogy: Cultivating Self-Determination

We must not ignore how digital technologies and rapidly growing access to knowledge has allowed learner autonomy to thrive around the world. From this awareness, Stewart Hase and Chris Kenyon (2007) introduced heutagogy—self-determined learning that shifts the focus from “what learners should know” to “how learners can learn.” Grounded in metacognitive constructivist principles, heutagogy emphasizes capability, self-regulation, and the creation of new knowledge. 

Blaschke’s (2012) application of a heutagogical model in MOOCs demonstrated 30–40% greater gains in learner autonomy and capability development compared to traditional instructor-led designs. Likewise, Hase and Kenyon’s vocational case studies documented that self-determined projects foster deeper reflection and robust problem-solving transfer.

Purpose for Pedagogy: Building the Metacognitive Foundations

Before learners can fully self-direct, they must acquire the metacognitive skills—planning, monitoring, and evaluating—that pedagogy and andragogy can cultivate (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000). A metacognitive on-ramp begins with structured pedagogical coaching.S caffolded experiences can mirror effective pedagogical scaffolds while explicitly teaching the very processes heutagogy will later allow learners to take further and deeper than pedagogy principles and practices can allow.

[Image from 'Creating a Self-Directed Learning Environment: Standards-Based and Social-Emotional Learning' by Greg Mullen, Corwin Publishing, 2019.]

A practical way to trace how heutagogy builds metacognitive awareness and self-management is through a five-stage cycle:

1. Identify Strengths & WeaknessesLearners begin by auditing their existing skills and knowledge—pinpointing both comfort zones and areas that need growth. Asking “What can I already do well, and where do I struggle?” lays the groundwork for targeted learning.

2. Design S.M.A.R.T. GoalsWith self-knowledge in hand, learners craft Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Relevant, Time-based goals. This step converts abstract aspirations into concrete action plans aligned to personal and professional contexts.

3. Utilize ResourcesNext, learners gather materials, peers, mentors, and technology—the “ingredients” they’ll need. Seeking out books, online tutorials, peer study groups, or expert feedback ensures they can move forward without guesswork.

4. Practice & ReflectLearners engage in deliberate practice—applying new skills, discussing challenges, and iterating on strategies. Regular reflection questions (“Did my approach work?” “How can I adjust?”) strengthen self-monitoring and adaptive planning.

5. Create a Mastery ProductFinally, learners synthesize their progress into a tangible output—an article, presentation, prototype, or workshop. This “product” both demonstrates capability and invites external feedback, closing the loop on self-assessment and peer validation.

Far from discarding pedagogy or andragogy, heutagogy builds on them: it presumes a well-scaffolded environment (pedagogical modeling of each stage) and leverages adult motivations when appropriate before inviting learners to cycle through these five phases autonomously. In doing so, heutagogical design ensures that every learner acquires and internalizes the metacognitive tools necessary to navigate complexity, create new knowledge, and sustain lifelong learning. In this way, heutagogy is not about replacing pedagogy but acknowleding and exceeding the limits of "effective" pedagogy.

Phased Release to Autonomy

Heutagogy does not abandon structure; rather, it morphs it over time:

1. Structured Introduction (Pedagogical Phase): Instructors model research methods or problem-solving steps in detail.

2. Guided Exploration (Transitional Phase): Learners choose case studies or projects aligned to their experience, with periodic instructor check-ins (Canning, 2010).

3. Self-Determined Projects (Heutagogical Phase): Participants fully set their own goals, select resources, and manage timelines, supported by peer and facilitator feedback only as needed.

Each phase gradually releases responsibility, ensuring learners are never plunged into unsupervised complexity before they are ready. This gradual release repeats as teachers observe student practice in this awareness and suggest learners begin to take ownership of small amounts of learning on their own, per the learner’s acceptance of that responsibility.

Learners must be allowed to “take ownership of taking ownership” so they are not left alone or separate from their peers or supporting adults. Self-directed does not mean to learn by yourself; learning is a social endeavour, and communities are necessary for effective learning.

Communities of Reflective Practice

Heutagogical environments thrive on peer-supported reflection. Learning circles or online forums become spaces where participants:

• Share progress and blind spots.

• Critique strategies and co-develop solutions.

• Reinforce metacognitive habits through social modeling (Hase & Kenyon, 2007).

This communal dimension both accelerates self-directed skill development and preserves the social learning benefits of pedagogy and andragogy.

Heutagogy’s Distinct Impact and Emerging Ecosystem

• MOOC Autonomy: Blaschke (2012) reported higher capability growth when learners co-created curriculum pathways.

• Vocational Transfer: Hase and Kenyon (2007) showed that apprentices who set their own learning milestones achieved deeper skill transfer on the job.

• Higher-Ed Empowerment: Canning (2010) found that mature undergraduates given heutagogical tasks sustained motivation and engagement well beyond course completion.

In an era of micro-credentials, open resources, and lifelong learning pathways, heutagogical principles—carefully scaffolded by pedagogical and andragogical design—enable learners to evolve from novice to fully self-determined agents.

4. Three Frameworks in Harmony

Rather than pitting pedagogy, andragogy, and heutagogy against one another, integrative research shows their complementary strengths. Merriam and Bierema (2014) outlined how effective instructional design can blend pedagogical scaffolds with andragogical relevance and heutagogical autonomy to support learners at all stages. Colquitt, LePine, and Noe’s (2000) meta-analysis of workplace training found that combining structured guidance (pedagogy), relevant practice (andragogy), and learner choice (heutagogy) maximizes skill acquisition and transfer.

Framework	Core Focus	When to Lean In
Pedagogy	Novice learners; instructor-led support	K–12 classrooms; foundational skill building
Andragogy	Adult learners; relevance & experience	Adult education; professional development
Heutagogy	Self-directed capability & reflection	Lifelong learning; complex problem domains

What’s important to know about this integrative approach is how observations of learner behavior can indicate a recycling of need for each framework. A student who move beyond pedagogical principles and exercising heutagogical support may find themselves intentionally asking to be folded back into a pedagogical environment when their learning has reached a point of mastery with no clear next step. 

Accepting that they are “novice” learners in an entirely new area allows them to accept fully the principles of heutagogy in a way that does not degenerate or lessen the purpose of these three lenses. 

By honoring their historical origins and limitations and pedagogy, and by drawing on a robust body of research, we can reclaim “pedagogy” from its industrial-school connotations, celebrate “andragogy” for its insights into adult learning, and embrace “heutagogy” as the frontier of self-determination in developing beyond compliance-driven schooling models. Together, these perspectives equip educators and learners to co-create rich, equitable, and future-ready learning environments that accept scientific research as support, not hindrance, of progress in education.

Greg Mullen

May 16, 2025

General Consult

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References

Blaschke, L. M. (2012). Heutagogy and lifelong learning: A review of heutagogical practice and self-determined learning. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 13(1), 56–71.

Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (2000). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school. National Academy Press.

Canning, N. (2010). Playing with heutagogy: Exploring strategies to empower mature learners in higher education. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 34(1), 59–71.

Colquitt, J. A., LePine, J. A., & Noe, R. A. (2000). Toward an integrative theory of training motivation: A meta-analytic path analysis of 20 years of research. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85(5), 678–707.

Darling-Hammond, L. (2010). The flat world and education: How America’s commitment to equity will determine our future. Teachers College Press.

Fredericks, J. A., Blumenfeld, P. C., & Paris, A. H. (2004). School engagement: Potential of the concept, state of the evidence. Review of Educational Research, 74(1), 59–109.

Hase, S., & Kenyon, C. (2007). Heutagogy: A child of complexity theory. Complicity: An International Journal of Complexity and Education, 4(1), 111–118.

Illeris, K. (2014). Transformative learning and identity. Journal of Transformative Education, 12(2), 148–163.

Knowles, M. S., Holton III, E. F., & Swanson, R. A. (2015). The adult learner: The definitive classic in adult education and human resource development (8th ed.). Routledge.

Kohn, A. (1999). The schools our children deserve: Moving beyond traditional classrooms and “tougher standards”. Houghton Mifflin.

Merriam, S. B., & Bierema, L. L. (2014). Adult learning: Linking theory and practice. Jossey-Bass.

Pedagogy. (n.d.). In Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved May 16, 2025, from https://www.etymonline.com/word/pedagogy